Syllabus for
Master of Science (Botany)
Academic Year  (2022)

The core biology subjects like Cytology, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Statistics etc. which are offered in first year makes the students appreciate the implications of these subjects in botanical studies. Modules on Taxonomy, Analytical Techniques, Plant Tissue Culture and Phytochemistry would make them acquire skills in doing research in Universities and R & D Centres and also makes them employable in herbal drug industry. All the courses in the programme are carefully designed to equip the students for competitive exams like CSIR NET, SET etc. and also to write research proposals for grants.

Programme Outcome/Programme Learning Goals/Programme Learning Outcome:

PO2: Appreciate the in-depth knowledge on advanced basic botany courses like Spermatophytes, Cryptogams etc

PO3: Introduction of applied botany modules on Taxonomy, Plant Tissue Culture, Phytochemistry, Plant Pathology etc

PO4: Demonstrate skills in undertaking research in Universities and R&D Centres

The evaluation scheme for each course shall contain two parts; (a) internal evaluation and (b) external evaluation. 50% weightage shall be given to internal evaluation and the remaining 50% to external evaluation and the ratio and weightage between internal and external is 1:1.  (a) Internal evaluation: The internal evaluation shall be based on predetermined transparent system involving periodic written tests, assignments, seminars and attendance in respect of theory courses and based on written tests, lab skill/records/viva and attendance in respect of practical courses.

• In this course we survey the biological diversity of modern algae and fungi, with an eye toward understanding why studying plant diversity is important in our  modern society.
• We consider first the traditional classification of algae and fungi, and how this system has  been revolutionized by phylogenetic analyses of genetic and now genomic data.
• We then turn to study the evolutionary processes that generate biodiversity and the ecological processes that shape this  diversity.

(a) History of algal classification. Detailed study of the classification by F. E. Fritsch and G. M. Smith. Modern trends and criteria for algal classification.

(b) Centers of algal research in India. Contributions of Indian phycologists – M O P Iyengar, V Krishnamurthy, T V Desikachary.

 (a) Details of habit, habitat and distribution of Algae.

 (b) Algal components: Cell wall, flagella, eye-spot, pigments, pyrenoid, photosynthetic products.

 (c) Range of thallus structure and their evolution.

 (d) Reproduction in algae: Different methods of reproduction, evolution of sex organs.

 (e) Major patterns of life cycle and post fertilization stages in Chlorophyta, Xanthophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta.

 (f) Fossil algae.

Ecological importance of Algae. Productivity of fresh water and marine environment. Algae in

symbiotic association, Algae in polluted habitat, Algal indicators, Algal blooms.

Economic importance of Algae

 (a) Algae as food, fodder, biofertilizer, medicine, industrial uses, and other useful products. Harmful effects of algae.

 (b) Use of Algae in experimental studies.

 (a) Methods and techniques of collection, preservation and staining of Algae.

 (b) Algal culture: Importance, methods; Algal culture media.

General characters of Fungi and their significance. Principles of classification of fungi, Classifications by G C Ainsworth (1973) and C. J. Alexopoulos.

 Mycelial structure and reproduction of;

 (a) Myxomycota –Acrasiomycetes, Hydromyxomycetes, Myxomycetes, Plasmodiophoromycetes.

 (b) Mastigomycotina - Chytridiomycetes, Hyphochytridiomycetes, Oomycetes.

 (c) Zygomycotina - Zygomycetes, Trichomycetes.

 (d) Ascomycotina - Hemiascomycetes, Pyrenomycetes, Plectomycetes, Discomycetes, Laboulbeniomycetes, Loculoascomycetes.

 (e) Basidiomycotina - Teliomycetes, Hyphomycetes, Gastromycetes.

 (f) Deuteromycotina - Blastomycetes, Hyphomycetes, Coelomycetes.

 (g) Types of fruiting bodies in fungi.

 (a) Symbionts - Lichens, Mycorrhiza, Fungus-insect mutualism.

 (b) Parasites - Common fungal parasites of plants, humans, insects and nematodes.

 (c) Saprophytes - Fungal decomposition of organic matter, coprophilous fungi, cellulolytic fungi, lignolytic fungi.

 (d) Agricultural significance of Fungi - Mycoparasite, mycoherbicide.

i: Introduction to crop pathology: Classification of plant diseases based on; (a) Major causal agents - biotic and abiotic, (b) General symptoms.

ii: Process of infection and pathogenesis:

 (a) Penetration and entry of pathogen into host tissue – mechanical, physiological and enzymatic.

 (b) Host-parasite interaction, enzymes and toxins in pathogenesis.

 iii: Defense mechanism in plants:   Pre-existing structural and biochemical defense mechanisms, lack of essential nutrients. Induced structural and biochemical defense mechanisms, inactivation of pathogen enzymes and toxins, altered biosynthetic pathways.

 iv: Transmission of plant disease: Spread and transmission of plant diseases by wind, water, seeds and vectors.

 v: Plant disease management: Exclusion, eradication and protection. Chemical means of disease control – common fungicides, antibiotics and nematicides. Biological means of disease control. Biotechnological approaches to disease resistance: Fungi in agricultural biotechnology, control of fungal plant pathogens by mycofungicides. Transgenic approaches to disease resistance.

 vi: Major diseases in plants: 

 (a) Cereals: Rice - blast disease, bacterial blight; Wheat - black rust disease.

 (b) Vegetables: Chilly - leaf spot; Ladies finger - vein clearing disease.

 (c) Fruits: Banana - bacterial leaf blight, leaf spot; Mango - Anthracnose; Citrus - bacterial canker; Papaya – mosaic.

 (d) Spices: Ginger - rhizome rot; Pepper - quick wilt; Cardamom - marble mosaic disease.

 (e) Oil seeds: Coconut - grey leaf spot, bud rot disease.

 (f) Rubber yielding: Hevea braziliensis - abnormal leaf fall, powdery mildew.

 (g) Sugar yielding: Sugarcane - red rot; root knot nematode.

 (h) Cash crops: Arecanut - nut fall disease.

 (i) Beverages: Tea - blister blight; Coffee - rust.

1. Chapman V J (1962).  The Algae. Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

2. Gilbert M Smith (1971).  Cryptogamic Botany (Vol. 1): Algae and Fungi. Tata McGraw Hill Edition.

3. C J Alexopoulos, M Blackwell, C W Mims.  Introductory Mycology (IV Edn).

4. Jim Deacon (2006).  Fungal Biology (IV Edn). Blackwell Publishing.

6. Kanika Sharma. Manual of microbiology: Tools and techniques.

7. H C Dube (1983).  An introduction to fungi. Vikas Publ. New Delhi.

• In this course we survey the biological diversity of modern algae and fungi and the methodology of their identification, with an eye toward understanding why studying to identify plant diversity is important in our modern society.
• We consider first the traditional classification of algae and fungi, and how this system has been revolutionized by phylogenetic analyses of genetic and now genomic data.
• We then turn to study the evolutionary processes that generate biodiversity and the ecological processes that shape this diversity.

1. Critical study of diagnostic features and identification of the following genera based on morphological, anatomical and reproductive parts;

(a) Cyanophyceae - Gleocapsa, Gleotrichia, Spirulina, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Lyngbya, Anabaena, Nostoc, Rivularia, Scytonema.

(b) Chlorophyceae - Chlamydomonas, Gonium, Eudorina, Pandorina, Volvox, Ecballocystis, Tetraspora, Ulothrix, Microspora, Ulva, Shizomeris, Cladophora, Pithophora. Coleochaete, Chaetophora, Drapernaldia, Drapernaldiopsis, Trentepohlia, Fritschiella, Cephaleuros, Oedogonium, Bulbochaete, Zygnema, Mougeotia, Sirogonium. Desmedium, Bryopsis, Acetabularia, Codium, Caulerpa, Halimeda, Neomeris, Chara, Nitella.

      (c) Xanthophyceae – Vaucheria.

      (d) Bacillariophyceae - Biddulphia, Pinnularia.

(e) Phaeophyceae - Ectocarpus, Colpomenia, Hydroclathrus, Dictyota, Padina, Sargassum, Turbinaria.

(f) Rhodophyceac - Brtrachospermum, Gelidium, Amphiroa, Gracilaria, Polysiphonia.

2. Students are to collect and identify algae from different habitat or visit an Algal research station.

3. Prepare and submit a report of the field work/research station visit.

1. Critical study of the following types by preparing suitable micropreparations; Stemonitis, Physarum, Saprolegnia, Phytophthora, Albugo, Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Pilobolous, Saccharomyces, Xylaria, Peziza, Phyllochora, Puccinia, Termitomyces, Pleurotus, Auricularia, Polyporus, Lycoperdon, Dictyophora, Geastrum, Cyathus, Fusarium, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Pestalotia, Graphis, Parmelia, Cladonia, Usnea.

2. Isolation of fungi from soil and water by culture plate technique.

3. Estimation of mycorrhizal colonization in root.

4. Collection and identification of common field mushrooms (5 types).

1. Make suitable micropreparations and identify the diseases mentioned with due emphasis on symptoms and causative organisms.

2.      2. Isolation of pathogens from diseased tissues (leaf, stem and fruit) by serial dilution method.

3.      3. Collection and preservation of specimens from infected plants. Submit 5 herbarium sheets/live

4.      specimens along with a report.

5.      4. Tests for seed pathology – seed purity test.

5. Calculation of Spore load on seeds using Haemocytometer.

•      Genetic Problems in Recombination and Linkage

•      Genetic problems in quantitative genetics 

•      Genetic problems in population genetics

•    Genetic problems in pedigree analysis 

• Analysis of genetic problems (Chi-Square test for linkage, the goodness of fit and Independence; quantitative genetics (correlation and Regression, students' t-test; Population genetics) using the software SPSS/Origin/SigmaPlot 

Record: 10%

Mid Sem Examination: 20%

End Sem Examination: 50%

Microbes play a very significant role in the lives of higher organisms. The paper surveys the features of microbes like bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae and protozoa in order to make the students understand their biology so as to manipulate them. This course fulfils the basic knowledge in microbiology for those students who wish to pursue career in allied health fields and other technical programs.

History of Microbiology, Microscopy – Light, Phase contrast, Fluorescence & Electron microscopy – TEM and SEM, Physical and Chemical control of microorganisms, Classification and nomenclature of microorganisms, Bergey’s manual, Staining techniques - Gram’s, acid fast, capsular, flagellar and endospore staining. Microbial Taxonomy: Pure culture techniques (Streaking, spread plate, pour plate, serial dilution), Identification of microorganisms – Morphological, Biochemical, serological and molecular techniques.

Bacterial cell structure, classification based on shape and arrangement of cells, cell wall, flagella, pili and capsule – structure & functions, endospore formation, features of mycoplasma, Rickettsia, Prions and diseases caused. 

Microbial metabolism: Aerobic, anaerobic respiration, fermentation, Catabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Bacterial photosynthesis, oxidation of inorganic molecules. Growth curve, factors affecting growth, Nutritional classification, Microbial associations (Mutualism, Syntrophism, Proto-cooperation, Commensalism, Ammensalism, Predation, Parasitism), Stress physiology: effect of oxygen toxicity, pH, osmotic pressure, heat shock on bacteria, HSPs, thermophiles, halophiles, alkaliphiles, acidophiles, psychrophiles and barophiles and their adaptations and significance., Bacterial biofilm formation (mechanism and mode of resistance). Nitrogen fixation mechanisms and genes involved.

Hepatitis B virus. RNA viruses: HIV, Nipah virus and Coronavirus (structure, infection cycle and risk factors), bacteriophages-. Lifecycle of Lambda phage. Cultivation and assay of viruses: Cultivation of viruses in embryonated eggs, experimental animals and cell cultures

Fungi:- Structural features, Ainsworth’s system of classification, salient features of division, reproduction of fungi, fungi as food, as plant pathogens, control measures of fungi, Mycorrhizae- ecto and endomycorrhizae, significance, Algae:- Salient features, classification (Fritsch’s) and reproduction, Symbiotic algae, use as biofuel.Algae as SCP (advantages and disadvantages)

Major Bacterial diseases – Typhoid, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Pneumonia and Cholera, Viral diseases - Dengue, Chikungunya, Rabies. Emerging viruses – H1N1, Ebola, Zika. Major parasitic diseases –Malaria, Amoebiasis, Giardiasis- pathogen, lifecycle and treatment measures. Etiology, symptoms and control measures of some plant diseases - Bacterial blight of rice, Late blight of potato, Coconut Root wilt, Ginger Soft Rot, Downy Mildew of Grapes, Rust of Wheat, Red Rot of Sugarcane.

Concepts of pathogenesis, virulence and epidemiology, Disease classification - Epidemic, endemic and pandemics, CDC and its role, normal human microflora, gut microbiota and its relevance. Diagnosis and control of infections, Antibiotic – types and mechanism of action, biomedical waste management, nosocomial infections, Drug resistance in bacteria – causes and consequences, super bugs.

Microbes in food manufacture (Yeast, Lactobacillus etc), food spoilage (Brucella, Bacillus, Clostridium, Escherichia etc, mycotoxins - aflatoxins, ochratoxins, ergot alkaloids), agriculture (Rhizobium, Trichoderma etc), environmental management, Biodegradation of Xenobiotics - hydrocarbons, pesticides and plastics, Bioleaching of Copper, Iron , Uranium, Gold.

CIA1: Assignment/test/poster preparation/review writing etc. for 20 marks

CIA2: MID SEMESTER EXAMINATION for 50 marks

CIA3: Assignment/test/poster preparation/review writing etc. for 20 marks

Attendance in class: 10 marks

END SEMSTER EXAMINATION: Consist of 2 sections. Section A consist of 10 questions carrying 5 marks each out of which students need to attempt 8 questions (8 X 5marks = 40 marks). Section B consists of 7 questions, carrying 12 marks each, out of which students need to attempt 5 questions (5 X 12 marks = 60 marks).

The paper is intended to develop understanding and provide scientific basis of the inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms. It also gives a thorough knowledge about the structure and function of biological macromolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids), and the metabolic and bioenergetic pathways within the cell. Students learn to interpret and solve clinical problems.

Forces and interactions of biomolecules; chemical bonds – Covalent and Ionic bond (bond energy), Stabilizing interactions (Van der Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction.), high energy molecules in living system (ATP, ADP, NAD, NADH, NADPH, FAD, FADH₂), Laws of thermodynamics, Concept of free energy, enthalpy, entropy, Coupled reactions, group transfer, biological energy transducers, redox potential.Buffers and Solutions: Concept of pH, pKa, titration curve, acids, bases and buffers, Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation, biological buffer solutions.Principles of thermodynamics; Kinetics, dissociation and association constants; energy rich bonds and weak interactions; Bioenergetics.

Classification, structure and Properties of mono, oligo and polysaccharides. Chirality and optical activity, stereoisomerism, cyclic structure of monosaccharide, (pyranoses and furanoses), structures of glucose. Absolute and relative configuration (D & L and R & S nomenclature). Disaccharides-structures of Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose, Trehalose, Raffinose. Polysaccharides. Structure and properties of homo and hetero polysaccharides. Storage polysaccharides. (Starch, Glycogen, cellulose, hemicellulose, and chitin) Derived sugars- Sugar acids (Aldonic, Aldaric and Saccharic acids), amino sugars. Derivatives of carbohydrates (Glycosaminoglycans, glycolipids, Proteoglycan and glycoproteins).

Carbohydrate metabolism: Glycogenolysis, Glycogenesis, Glycolysis- Energetics and Regulation, Fermentation reactions (Lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation), Gluconeogenesis, Reciprocal regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis, Citric acid cycle- Energetics and regulation, Glyoxylate cycle. Pentose phosphate pathway.

Electron transport chain, Electron transfer reactions in mitochondria, Electron carriers, Ubiquinone, Cytochromes, Iron sulfur centers, Methods to determine sequence of electron carriers, Fractionation of Multi enzyme complexes I, II, III, IV of Mitochondria and their inhibitors, Oxidative phosphorylation, ATP synthesis, Chemiosmotic model, Proton gradient, Structure of ATP synthetase, Mechanism of ATP synthesis, Brown fat, Regulation of Oxidative phosphorylation.

Amino acids: Structure, properties, classification and functions, reactions of amino acids, modifications of amino acids in proteins, non-protein amino acids.

Proteins- peptide bond, psi and phi angle, Ramachandran's plot, Structural organizations of proteins (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, Domains, Motifs & Folds), conformational analysis. Structure and functional classification of proteins. Structure- function relationship. Thermodynamics of protein folding, chaperones and chaperonins, Stability of Protein Structures, examples of  specific proteins; Keratin, Silk fibroin, collagen triple helix and hemoglobin; Denaturation and renaturation of proteins; neurotransmitters, Peptide hormones .

Amino acid and Protein metabolism: Transamination, Deamination, Decarboxylation, basic glutamine and glutamic acid pathways, urea cycle and its regulation, formation of uric acid.

Enzyme nomenclature and classification, Isolation of enzymes. Extraction of soluble and membrane bound enzymes: Purification of enzymes-Criteria for purification; Assay of enzymes. Factors affecting enzyme activity, Isozymes, Coenzymes and cofactor, Metalloenzymes, membrane bound enzymes, Multienzyme complexes, Synthetic enzymes, Ribozymes. Mechanism of enzyme action, Active site and Specificity of enzyme. Theories on enzyme substrate complex. Free energy of enzyme reactions. Steady state kinetics. Michaelis-Menton, Lineweaver–Burk, Edde-Hofstee and Hanes-Woolf equations. Pre-steady state kinetics. Fast kinetics to elucidate the intermediates and rate limiting steps.

Enzyme inhibition: types of inhibitors; Mechanism of enzyme inhibition –competitive, non – competitive, uncompetitive, mixed and irreversible inhibition. Allosteric regulation in metabolic pathways. Applications of enzymes, enzyme engineering (Protein engineering). Immobilization of enzymes and their application.

Classification- Structure, properties, reactions and biological functions of lipids. Phospholipids, Sphingo and glyco lipids, Steroids-cholesterol-bile salts, steroid hormones,Cerebrosides, lipoamino acids, lipoproteins, lipopolysaccharides, eicosanoids (Prostaglandins, leucotrienes and thromboxane).Role of lipids in biomembranes.

Metabolism of Lipids: Biosynthesis of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol. Beta oxidation of Fatty acids: activation, transport to mitochondria, metabolic pathway. Oxidation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Alpha and omega oxidation, metabolic disorders (Triglyceridemia, NaymanSacchs Disease).

Structure and properties- Bases, Nucleosides, Nucleotides, Polynucleotides.

Nucleic acid metabolism: Biosynthesis and regulation of purines and pyrimidines, Denovo and Salvage pathways, biodegradation of purines and pyrimidines.

Vitamins: Classification, Chemistry and Biological Functions, Fat and water soluble vitamins. Role in metabolism, Vitamins as co-enzymes. Metabolic Disorders –A, B, C, D, K.

Hormones:Autocrine, paracrine and endocrine action. Endocrine glands, Classification of hormones, basic mechanism of hormone action, importance of TSH,T3,T4, Estrogen, Testosterone, HCG, FSH, LH, Prolactin, Progesteron, adrenaline, insulin and glucagon. Hormone imbalance and disorders: hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Polycystic Ovarian Disorder PCOD), Insulin Dependent Diabetes.

Plant Growth regulators: Biosynthesis, Physiological role and mechanism of action of plant growth hormones (Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene, abscisic acid, Brassinosteroids), receptors and signal transduction (salicylic acid and jasmonic acid pathways).

Nelson, D. C. and Cox, M.M., Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 5th Edition, W. H. Freeman, 2010.

Voet D., Voet J.G, Biochemistry 4th Edition., John Wiley and Sons, 2011.

Elliott, W.H., Elliott, D.C. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 3^rd Indian edition, Pub. Oxford.

Mathews, Van Holde and Ahern, Biochemistry by 3^rd edition, Pub Pearson education

Berg J.M., Tymoczko J.L. and Stryer L., Biochemistry. 7th edition, W.H. Freeman and Co. New York, 2011.

Kuchel, P.W., Ralston Schaums, G.B. Outlines of Biochemistry 2^nd edition Pub: Tata.

Devlin, T.M. (1997). Biochemistry with clinical correlations, Wiley-Liss Inc. NY

Zubey, G.L. Parson, W.W., Vance, D.E. (1994). Principles of Biochemistry WmC Brown publishers. Oxford.

Edwards and Hassall. Biochemistry and Physiology of the cell 2^ndEdn. McGraw Hill Co. UK. Ltd.

CIA1: Assignment/test/poster preparation/review writing etc. for 20 marks

CIA2: MID SEMESTER EXAMINATION for 50 marks

CIA3: Assignment/test/poster preparation/review writing etc. for 20 marks

Attendance in class: 10 marks

END SEMSTER EXAMINATION: Consist of 2 sections. Section A consist of 10 questions carrying 5 marks each out of which students need to attempt 8 questions (8 X 5marks = 40 marks). Section B consists of 7 questions, carrying 12 marks each, out of which students need to attempt 5 questions (5 X 12 marks = 60 marks).

• The chapters on genetics make them appreciate the flow of inherited characters from one generation to the other and study about the interaction of different genes in different organisms.
• The students will also gain knowledge related to quantitative, population and evolutionary genetics, in addition to microbial genetics.

Transmission genetics, Molecular genetics and Population genetics (brief introduction). Mendelism – basic principles (brief study). Extensions of Mendelism, Multiple allele, Genetic interaction, Epiststic interactions, Non-Epistatic inter-allelic genetic interactions, Atavism/Reversion,, pentrance and expressivity of genes. Nonmendelian inheritance – cytoplasmic inheritance, uniparental inheritance 

Sex Chromosomes and sex determination in animals and plants; Dosage Compensation of X-Linked Genes: Hyperactivation of X-linked genes in maleDrosophila, Inactivation of X-linked genes in female mammals

Linkage and Crossing over - Stern’s hypothesis, Creighton and McClintock’s experiments, single cross over, multiple cross over, two-point cross, three-point cross, map distances, gene order, interference and co-efficient of coincidence. Haploid mapping (Neurospora), Mapping in bacteria and bacteriophages.

pedigree analysis, determination of human genetic diseases by pedigree analysis, genetic mapping in human pedigrees.Heterochromatization in human beings,Human karyotype, Banding techniques, classification, use of Human Cyto-genetics in Medical science, Chromosomal abnormalities in spontaneous abortions